Economic Determinants of Higher Education Demand in the UK Assignment

Economic Determinants of Higher Education Demand in the UK - Assignment Example Advancement of new technologies and globalization has created complex high competitive environments in businesses. Thus, contemporary graduates commonly find occupations as programmers, journalists, primary school teachers, marketers, and retail managers. Higher education sector not only contributes to the development of country’s human resource, but also it provides a profitable business venture and a prominent source of export income to the UK (Universities UK, 2011). Therefore investigating the determinants of the demand in this sector can be beneficial to country’s economic growth. This study is focused on identifying the impact of students’ demographic characteristics on demand for higher education. It also examines the types of occupations in which graduates are significantly employed. The higher education sector in the UK comprises of universities, university colleges, specialist higher education institutions, and other higher education colleges. According to the statistics, there are 115 universities and 50 other higher education institutions in the UK. The demand for higher education derives from labor markets in UK, EU countries, and non-EU countries. The United Kingdom has a competitive advantage in providing higher education to the world due to its global reputation, elite higher education brands, historical trade and political links, the popularity of the English language and culture, and post-study employment prospects (Universities UK, 2012). These can be considered as â€Å"pull† factors (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002). There are also â€Å"push† factors contributing to the growth of this sector. The push factors are largely generated based on the socio-political environments in the home countries of international students (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002). Thus, changes occurring in those countries can affect the growth of higher education sector in the UK.  

Victor Frankl and Existentialism Essay Example for Free

Victor Frankl and Existentialism Essay Viktor Frankl, psychiatrist and concentration camp survivor, is the man credited with â€Å"translating existential philosophy to practical reality† (Kottler and Brown, 2000). Frankl was born in Vienna, Austria, in 1905. He studied neurology and psychiatry at the University of Vienna, and in 1940 became director of the Neurological Department of the Rothschild Hospital in Vienna. Before the outbreak of World War II, Frankl had the chance to go to America. He decided to stay in Vienna instead because of something his father had recovered from a synagogue recently destroyed by the Nazisa block of marble bearing the first letters of the Commandment â€Å"Honor thy father and mother that thy days may be long upon the land. † Frankl and his family were sent to Auschwitz in 1942. Frankl was the only one to survive (Scully, 1995). It was in Auschwitz that Frankl began to put together his existentialist ideas. He noticed that those prisoners who created personal meaning from this hellish experience were the ones most likely to survive. Frankl himself came to realize that â€Å"suffering is an ineradicable part of life, even as fate and death. Without suffering and death human life cannot be complete† (Frankl, 1946). In 1946 he published Man’s Search for Meaning, a book titled From Concentration Camp to Existentialism in its German editions. Frankl’s goal for the book is simple: â€Å"I had wanted simply to convey to the reader by way of concrete example that life holds potential meaning under any conditions, even the most miserable ones. And I thought that if the point were demonstrated in a situation as extreme as that in a concentration camp, my book might gain a hearing. I therefore felt responsible for writing down what I had gone through, for I thought it might be helpful to people who are prone to despair† (Frankl, 1946). Frankl continued to work with existentialist theory throughout his life, developing a psychotherapy known as logotherapy. He also continued to write, publishing another 31 books. Frankl died in 1997. Frankl’s ideas regarding logotherapy grew out of the philosophy of existentialism. This philosophy has its beginnings in the writings of Soren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger. Existentialist philosophy is difficult to explain, but â€Å"Basically the existentialist assumes that existence precedes essence, that the significant fact is that we and things in general exist, but that these things have no meaning except as we through acting upon them can create meaning† (Holman, 1972). Logotherapy, considered the Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy, â€Å"regards the search for meaning as the primary human motivation. . . . A human being is not a mere puppet of biological, hereditary and environmental forces, but is always free to take a stand toward inner conditions and outer circumstances† (Viktor Frankl Institute). Logotherapy leads patients to discover meaning in their lives in one of three ways: â€Å"(1) by creating a work or doing a deed; (2) by experiencing something or encountering someone; and (3) by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering† (Frankl, 1946). â€Å"Logotherapy amounts in nearly all situations to the advice, ‘Get to work. ’ Other psychologies begin by asking, ‘What do I want from life? Why am I unhappy? ’ Logotherapy asks, ‘What does life at this moment demand of me? ’† (Scully, 1995). There are definite difficulties with logotherapy. It is highly intellectual, and therefore not appropriate for those of low intelligence (Kottler and Barton, 2000). It requires a great deal of intellectual energy, even from those with very high IQ’s. It also disregards possible biochemical connections associated with some forms of mental illness. But despite the criticisms, I find existential theory and logotherapy useful as guides for an attitude toward life. I first became interested in existentialism through literature. Then last fall, I read James F. T. Bugental’s Search for Existential Identity and became interested in how something I had studied as literary theory could be used as a method to treat patients. Researching for this paper has led me to the works of Viktor Frankl. Existentialism and logotherapy are two areas I will continue to explore. References Frankl, Viktor. (1946). Man’s Search for Meaning. New York: Washington Square Press. Holman, C. Hugh. (1972). A Handbook to Literature. New York: Odyssey Press. Kottler, Jeffery A. , Brown, Robert W. (2000). Introduction to Therapeutic Counseling. Stamford, CT: Brooks/Cole, Thomson Learning. Scully, Matthew. Viktor Frankl at ninety: an interview. First Things, 52, 39-43. Victor Frankl Institute. http://logotherapy. univie. ac. at/.

The Merchant Of Venice :: Free Merchant of Venice Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When William Shakespear wrote, The merchant Of Venice, he made a female character that has a huge influence on the play. In most of his work, the women don’t have much power and are not very smart. In the Merchant Of Venice, Portia is a woman that saves the life of a man using her head. Another woman created by Shakespear that is a lot alike with Portia is Beatrice, from Much Ado about Nothing. Both of these ladies add to the main theme of the plays because of their brains, and smart remarks, as well as being careing. The Women share many qualities as well as differences. Portia seems to Be one of Shakespear’s greatest Characters Because of her great looks and intelligence her high moral seriousness plays a role in her character as well. Portia is known throughout the world because of her amazing qualities. She seems to be able to handle any situation with her wit. In Most of Shakespear’s plays the women are made to be less then the men. In the Fourth act after Portia has saved the life of Antonio, She uses her wit just as Beatrice would she says, â€Å" I see sir, you are liberal in offers. You taught me first to beg...† . Portia is thought of as an angel having no flaws, which you can tell when Bassanio describes her to Antonio and says, â€Å" In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair and fairer the that word, of wonderous virtues. Nor is the wide world ignorant of her worth, For the four winds blow in from every coast, renowned suitors , and her sunny locks hang hang on her temples like a golden fleece, which makes her seat of Belmont Colchis’ strond and many Jasons come in quest of her.† Portia is basically the perfect renaissance lady. She is not ambitious, she is restrictive . She is way modest, She does not hold herself above others. Her generosity makes her want to have more wealth, so that she can help out more amongst the people she cares about. Besides saving the life of Antonio, portia is also used to have the theme of deceptive appearances. Throughout the play, Shakespear uses his characters from the play to show the audience or reader that a character cannot be judged by how the appear to the eye, and the person can truley be something different inside. So basically what it is saying is

Describe Australia’s Consitution

On the 1st January 1901 Australia became one nation. Prior to this Australia consisted of six separate colonies who all answered to British authority. The British government then passed the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (UK) and federation was achieved. The British government had provided Australia with a constitution which was a set of rules which the government had to follow in order to run the country. Parts of the constitution include the division of power between the different levels of government and the establishment of the High Court.Australia is a constitutional monarch. This is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state and because the British monarchy still plays a role in the Australian parliament, the government has a Governor-General. The Governor-General is the representative of the monarch or head of state (now Queen Elizabeth II). He or she exercises the supreme power of the Commonwealth. The constitution grants the Governor-Gener al a wide range of powers. The most important power the Governor-General has is found in section 58 of the constitution. When a proposed law passed by both Houses of Parliament is presented to the Governor-General for the Queen's assent, he shall declare †¦ that he assents in the Queen's name. † This means they have the power to decide which laws come into force. The constitution divides up the powers between the federal government and the states. This is covered in Chapter 1, Part V in sections 51 to 60. It specifies the legislative powers of the federal parliament which enables them to make laws.Section 52 outlines the exclusive powers of the federal government. The state parliament was given residual powers, these are the remaining matters which are not referred to in the constitution on which the states can legislate. The federal parliament was given the power to make laws on all matters listed in section 51. The state government can also make laws in many of the area s listed in section 51. This is an example of concurrent power which are powers held by both the state and federal parliaments.Each state has its own constitution along with residual powers. Some of the main powers of the state governments are in the areas of crime hospitals and public transport. When there is conflict between federal and state governments the solution is found in section 109 which states ‘When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency be invalid’. This means that federal overrules state.According to section 51, the federal government can pass laws on foreign relations and trade and commerce around the world, taxation, currency, immigration and emigration etc. They also have the power to pass laws on the naval and military defence of the commonwealth, naturalization and aliens and the provision of maternity allowances. This is just a handful of what the many areas listed in section 51 are. Overall the entire Australian government answers to the constitution. This constitution combined six colonies into one country. A country that is now one of the most powerful countries in the world.

The Pop

1 Mixtures and Solutions: Candy Chromotography Background Information and Research Biochemists often use this method of separation when studying amino acids or other chemicals from living things. Also they use it to separate a solution with multiple components with different polarites. People use chromoography to find the things in milk,find out what chemicals are in black ink, also determine whether something is hazardous or not. Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to see what kind of dyes and colors are in the candy’s colored coating. Also to see what kind of things are in it. Materials: Candy with a colored coating, like Skittles ® or M&Ms ® (4 different colors) †¢ Rubbing alcohol or isopropyl alcohol †¢ Coffee filters (2) †¢ Tall glasses or plastic cups (2) †¢ Pencil †¢ Ruler †¢ Tape †¢ Foil or paper plate †¢ Table salt †¢ Water †¢ Toothpicks or cotton swabs (4) †¢ Measuring cups/spoons †¢ Clean pitcher or 2-liter bottle Procedure: 1. Coffee filters usually are round, but it's easier to compare your results if the paper is square. So your first task is to cut the coffee filter into a square measuring three cm by nine cm square from a coffee filter. You will need two of these strips to complete the lab. 2. Space four drops of water (or however many colors you are testing) equally distant on a piece of foil or plate. Position one candy of each color on the drops. Give the color about a minute to come off into the water. Dispose of the candy. 3. Using a pencil (do not use a pen), draw a line one cm (1/2 inch) from the edge of one end of one strip of paper. 4. Make four pencil dots (one for each color of candy you will be examining) along this line, about 0. cm (1/4 inch) apart. Underneath each dot, label the color of the candy you will test on that spot. You won't have space to write the whole color name, so try abbreviations like B for blue, G for green, etc. 5. Before you complete the rest of the lab, make a prediction of the components you expect to see from each candy color. 6. Dip a toothpick or cotton swab into one sample of colored water and dab the color onto the pencil dot for that color. Use a clean toothpick for each co lor. Try to keep each dot as small as possible. Allow the filter paper to dry, and then go back and add more color to each dot, repeating this step a total of three times for each color. 7. Prepare the salt solution by mixing 1/8 teaspoon of salt and three cups of water in a clean pitcher or 2-liter bottle. Stir or shake the solution until it is dissolved. This will produce a 1% salt solution. 8. Pour the salt solution into a clean tall glass so that the liquid level is 1/4 inch (0. 5 cm). 9. Tape the strip to a pencil and rest the pencil on top of the jar so that the strip hangs into the jar. The goal is to have the end of the chromatography strip just touching the surface of the solvent solution, with the colored dots above the surface of the liquid. Make sure that the colored spots do not come in direct contact with the liquid in the bottom of the glass. 10. Capillary action will draw the salt solution up the paper. As it passes through the dots, it will begin to separate the dyes. When the salt water is 1/4 inch (0. 5 cm) from the top edge of the paper, remove it from the glass and place it on a clean, flat surface to dry. 11. Repeat steps two through nine (using the second strip of paper and a clean glass) to test the same four colors using the alcohol instead of the saltwater solution at the bottom of the glass. Data and Observations Original Predictions: †¢ The red M&M will travel the farthest and be the strongest. †¢ The The dye in the yellow M&M will travel less and be the lightest color. †¢ [pic] Other observations I noticed was the stationary phase matters. Both the red and yellow travveld to the front but had little separation. Red showed the lowest travelling distance. Discussion and Conclusion: The first part of this section discusses the observations and results of the lab as well as any mistakes that may have been made (or what measures were taken to try to avoid mistakes) and what improvements, if any, you can think of for the procedure for the next time the lab will be conducted. The discussion section of this lab should also include discussions on the following: †¢ A comparison of how each solution (salt water and alcohol) separated the pigments from each color of candy or ink type. Which solution worked better at separating each of the pigments (it may be different for different candy colors or inks), and why do you think that is? †¢ If you had allowed less time for the lab (stopping the separation process when the solution was half way up the paper) how do you think that would have affected your results? †¢ What pigment colors traveled farther up the paper? What pigment traveled the least? Was it the same or different when those pigments appeared in other candy colors or inks? Was it the same or different when separated by alcohol instead of salt water?

Novice to Expert Nurse Leader Essays

Novice to Expert Nurse Leader Essays Novice to Expert Nurse Leader Paper Novice to Expert Nurse Leader Paper NOVICE TO EXPERT NURSE LEADER By Gwen Travis Gonzaga University NURS 553 The path to nursing leadership most often progresses from novice to expert nurse and then onto a novice nurse manager. The novice nurse manager is asked to lead and rarely given the tools or knowledge to be successful in this new role. The Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition discussed by Patricia Benner includes the following five levels of competency in the clinical nurse (Benner, 1982): * Level I – NOVICE – beginners with no experience with practice situations and an inability to use discretionary judgment. Level II – ADVANCED BEGINNER – actions/decisions are based on prior experience in actual situations. * Level III – COMPETENT – actions are planned with long-range goals but lack speed or flexibility in decision-making. * Level IV – PROFICIENT – views situations as a whole rather than on an individual aspect and can revise plans in response to changes in a situation. * Level V – EXPERT – no longer relies on rules or guidelines in decision-making but intuitive understanding of the situation. Novice APN Leader As a novice nurse we are taught theoretical knowledge in school and along with the healthcare facilities policies and procedures, rely on these in our decision-making. (Gershenson, Moravick, Sellman Somerville, 2004). As we combine this theoretical foundation along with experience we can progress on through the levels toward expert nursing. The novice nurse manager needs rules to guide his/her actions. As an ASC facility administrator, I supervised a charge nurse who had been promoted to a nurse manager position. The nurse was considered an expert by her peers and surgeons. However, she had no experience/prior training with managing people, knowledge of human resources policies or financial/budget procedures. She struggled with time management, prioritizing duties and staff interpersonal relationships. She often became frustrated and made quick decisions without looking at the long-range goal or outcome of her actions and decisions. She allowed herself to be influenced by a fellow nurse who had been a co-worker when making staffing and/or disciplinary decisions. As a consequence this undermined her credibility with the surgeons and staff resulting in her leaving the facility for another position. All too often this is where the career path ends for a untrained novice manager as they question whether they have made the right decision or lose the confidence of upper management and their staff. Expert APN leader The expert advanced practice nurse leader would understand the importance of using evidence-based practice (EBP) in policy and decision-making. If the use of the latest, high-quality research is vital to optimal patient outcomes it can also transfer over to the development of staff and nursing leaders. Better trained nurses and leaders are more able to perform their jobs which should lead to the goals of improved patient care and expert staff retention. As research shows, there are several key factors involved in the development of an expert nurse manager which includes: mentorship, communication and positive feedback. (Gershenson, et al, 2004) Mentorship is critical for a novice nurse manager to assist with recognizing the changes of their new role. Constructive feedback provided by a mentor provides the novice with the benefits of years of experience and knowledge and is necessary for a novice nurse manager’s success. Effective mentorship and communication are also crucial as good (expert) leaders continue to develop their own skills and knowledge as â€Å"one can only lead others as far as they have gone themselves. † (Rizzo, 2005) An expert nurse manager/leader will see the organization and staff as a whole when planning, implementing or the revision of policies or practices. The expert advanced practice (AP) nurse leader would not have fallen victim to allowing the manipulation of a single staff member in decision-making the influenced the staff as a whole. We as APN leaders should strive to break the tradition of training future nursing leaders through â€Å"trial and error† and assist our colleagues in building the skills used in EBP within our practice settings. EBP must be a component when developing, implementing and evaluating current practices in future staff and leadership development as employees are an organization’s greatest resource and â€Å"a developing employee is a motivated employee. (Rizzo, 2005) References Benner, P. (1982). From novice to expert. The American Journal of Nursing, 82(3), 402-407. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Gershenson, T. , Moravick, D. , Sellman, E. , Somerville, S. (2004) Career scope: Northeast. Expert to novice: a nurse leader’s evolution. Nursing Management, 35(6), 49-52. Retrieved from EBSCOho st. Rizzo, M. D. , (2005). Tools for Novice Health Care Clinical Administrators. The Health Care Manager, 24(1), 3-11. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Backlash has been described as a complicated struggle over normativity The WritePass Journal

Backlash has been described as a complicated struggle over normativity Abstract Backlash has been described as a complicated struggle over normativity Abstract1. Introduction2. The Concept of Backlash3. Backlash and the Contemporary Positions of Men and Women in Organisations4. ConclusionReferencesRelated Title: Backlash has been described as a complicated struggle over normativity (Robinson, 2000). What does this mean? How can the concept of backlash help us understand the relative positioning of men and women in organizations? Abstract Men have historically occupied an invisible, gendered space within the work environment. Their privileges compared to women, and their power compared with women, have gone unnoticed through this invisibility.  Ã‚   Through feminism, there has gradually arisen an awareness of these hidden inequalities, and the ways in which men have been prioritised as the ‘neutral’, over-riding voice in the workplace. This awareness has led to some redistribution of power, as women take on greater responsibility, more powerful roles, and obtain better pay. However, the consequences of this have been that men have, in some instances, started to see themselves as victims of women’s growth in the workplace through the phenomenon of backlash. Although seemingly a simple concept, backlash is complex and tricky to measure, and has a number of consequences for both men and women.  Ã‚   The notion of normativity helps us understand the ways in which victimhood has been appropriated by some men to reclaim the power they feel they have lost.  Ã‚   Ideas around backlash and normativity have had a number of repercussions for the workplace and organisational politics, some detrimental to women’s position, although there are suggestions that the right approach to equality can overcome these issues. 1. Introduction The following essay will look at the concept of ‘backlash’, the notion that people are resisting structured organisational attempts to ensure that marginalised workers are employed and given opportunities for promotion. While the concept embraces a number of marginalised workers, for example people of colour and people with disabilities (Burke and Black 1997), this essay will consider only the case of ‘backlash’ for men against women employees.  Ã‚   Male ‘backlash’, it has been claimed, has existed for some considerable time, and is stronger now than in the past (Faludi 1991).   Backlash can be unconscious: men may be unaware that they hold the attitudes they do towards women (Burke and Black 1997). First, the notion of ‘backlash’ will be discussed, and the ideas that it presents â€Å"a complicated struggle over normativity† (Robinson, 2000) analysed. Next, the essay will consider how the notion of backlash is useful for understanding the hierarchical relationships between men and women in organisations. 2. The Concept of Backlash In order to understand the concept of backlash, it is first necessary to look more closely at men’s position within organisations.  Ã‚   It has been argued that men’s status as gendered goes unnoticed by themselves and by others within the organisation.  Ã‚   Men are assumed to be the norm, and to speak for the whole of human kind (Nelson 2006).   Typically, men in organisations are unaware of themselves as men, with â€Å"self-knowledge as gendered subjects †¦ noticeably absent† (Whitehead 2001, p. 309).  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, the state of being a man means occupying one of (at least) two possible gendered positions.   While gender is a visible ‘fact’, with most (but not all) men and women being visually distinguished as such, behind this ‘fact’ â€Å"gender is enacted, and society has a pattern of practices and expectations that make this enactment visible† (Bilimoria and Kristin, 2007, p. 38).   Ã‚  Ã‚  While often seen as a genderless, cerebral environment, the workplace, no less than other cultural and social contexts, is one in which organisational decisions are made in an embodied, gendered context (Whitehead and Moodley 1999).   Within the workplace, gender differences exist both visibly and invisibly, and at a number of different levels.   One of the most important of these levels is the symbolic: the ways in which language, clothing, physical symbols, printed media and similar function to express positions about gender. Ideas, attitudes and perceptions also contribute to the complex mix of engenderment in the organisation. The social and political structures of an organisation might appear neutral, however it is likely to be based upon invisible engenderment at deeper levels (Blanpain et al 2008). It should be noted, however, that recognition of the gendered nature of the workplace should not be taken as a simple binary between male and female: â€Å"transgender identities further complicate notions of the gendered subject†. Additionally, invisibilities of sexuality further complicate the matter: the relationship of lesbian to womanhood, and the gay man to masculine identities, needs also to be considered   (Melzer 2006). There is an unfair balance of power between men and women in the workplace, with men generally getting better pay, conditions and holding higher positions within organisations. Women’s abilities as leaders often go unnoticed or are ignored, and the phenomenon of the ‘glass ceiling’ is well-documented (Haslett et al 1992).   This unfair balance seems to be a function of men’s invisibility as gendered subjects: if men are perceived unconsciously to be the norm, then women are by definition outside the norm, and are consequently subject to poorer work conditions including pay and promotion. One reaction to this is for the oppressed groups to act to make people aware of men’s privileges and bring to light their hidden engenderment.   This opens the possibility of making the inequalities between men and women visible to all.   Mutua (2006) describes â€Å"unearned benefits† which men possess, just by being born men, and suggests that rather than seeing the inequalities between men and women in the workplace in terms of how poorly women are treated, we reverse this and look at, for example, how much more men earn on average than do women (Mutua 2006). In general, there has been a concerted effort in many countries to make gender inequalities in the workplace more visible (Kabeer et al 2008). This can, however, make the privileged group – men – defensive and angry.   By making people more aware of male engenderedness, and by   bringing   the inequalities that this hides to light, ‘backlash’ can result, as men start to see themselves as victims.  Ã‚   As such, they begin to occupy an ambivalent position, both invisible and visible. There are reasons for men to claim both these states. Robinson suggests that men have good reason to want to be invisible, as invisibility allows them to continue to enjoy benefits that women cannot access.   However, they can also gain from being visible, and visible as an oppressed group, a victim of female power (Robinson 2000).   Faludi (1991) made the concept of ‘backlash’ popular.   While, she suggested, anti-feminist feeling has always played a part in modern America, there have been particular incidences of backlash in recent history, particularly when â€Å"women are poised to make real gains in social and political life† (Boyd 2007, p. 5).   For Faludi (1991) backlash works by presenting an opposite position as the truth, and by blaming women for wider social difficulties, that is, blaming feminism for creating problems for women, rather than offering a solution to such problems (Walby 1997) The notion of ‘backlash’ is often presented as a simple reaction by men against a growth in women’s rights. However, the idea is more complex than this suggests. For example, it can cover different types of male resistance to attempts to redress inequalities between the sexes: men who may once have approved of this in principle, but now no longer do so, and those who have never approved of equality for women (Goode 1982). Backlash has also changed over time, with Faludi (1991) arguing that it is more common now than in the past. This increase may be down to a number of reasons including increased competition in organisations for pay and position, the growth of political correctness in the workplace, and increased media coverage of gender inequalities. Men are also increasingly aware of how the workplace is changing, with women gradually gaining more power and taking on roles that used to be the sole preserve of men (Burke and Black 1997).   Backlash can also be seen as a function of male insecurity over a changing world, as men blame women’s increased power for ills which befall them.  Ã‚   These feelings are fuelled by a predominantly right-wing media and corporate culture (Kimmel 2004). Estimates vary regarding the prevalence of backlash. Early studies (Astrachan 1986; AMOI 1988) suggested that up to 90% of men were in favour of women maintaining a traditional role.   While backlash in organisations seems to have been clearly identified, there are relatively few empirical studies assessing its prevalence, and a lack of clarity about the best ways of measuring it. Many researchers use the Implicit Association Test, a wider social psychology test designed to measure automatic associations between mental concepts in memory as a way of quantifying implicit stereotypes about gender (Rudman and Glick 2001) There are also different understandings of the impact of backlash on the wider workplace: backlash can increase tension between men and women, makes bonds between men stronger, and can fracture relationships between women to the extent that women have carved a role within the male environment or not (Burke and Black 1997). Backlash is sometimes known as ‘competing victim syndrome’, a term used by Cox (1995) to describe the ways in which, in education, boys interest groups tried to define a position of victims of feminism (Mills 2001). There are several factors which can exacerbate backlash.     If an organisation lacks effective communication both about the phenomenon of backlash and measures that can be taken to combat it, men are likely to be suspicious of any changes. If a clear case is made for proactive measures for women, backlash is less likely (Gandossy et al 2006).   If men are excluded from equality planning, or if they are not seen as part of the solution to inequalities, then this can also make backlash feel worse.   Organisations can take practical steps to including men in such planning, for example identifying a core group of men who are committed to women’s rights and ensuring support from senior management (Ruxton 2004).  Ã‚   Certain organisational structures can also make backlash more intense. For example, where a culture of blame is fostered, with men seen as the causes of women’s disadvantage, men are more likely to react negatively against any perception that womenâ⠂¬â„¢s situation in the workplace is improving.   Equally, if the organisational culture has prioritised men and masculinity, perhaps unconsciously, men may react more strongly against women’s improving situation (Angus 1993). It is also possible that backlash is stronger in organisations where a higher number of minority employees have been taken onto the workforce. As we have seen, the concept of backlash is not as simple as it has sometimes been portrayed in the media (for example, a recent daily mail article appeared to blame feminism for crises in the National Health Service (Phillips 2011)), but rather, as Robinson suggested, it may rather be a complicated struggle over normativity. That is, it concerns a wider debate about the concept of the ‘norm’ and what is considered the ‘normal’ in society today.  Ã‚   The notion of the norm can be seen as rooted in concepts of the natural, and what is inherent or given in human nature, rather than a social, political or cultural construct.   By recognising that the ‘norm’ is, in fact, a construct, we open ourselves to the possibility that the given can be changed.   Feminism in general can be seen as a struggle against the notion that femininity and masculinity as they are experienced in today’s society are fixed. This notion that the female (or mal e) is a given is supported by much of contemporary science (Cameron 1995).  Ã‚   Robinson suggests, in this context, that seeing men as victims of feminism is not as straightforward as a reversal of positive discrimination, but is part of a larger debate about the ways in which normality is defined, and hence as part of a debate about normativity (Robinson 2000).   As Robinson (2000) points out, the notion of masculinity, and the understanding of what it means to be male, is open to debate, can be challenged, and may change.   He also emphasises that the debate over normativity is one about power; who holds power in society, and whether they rightfully do so. Seen in this context, the move by which men have presented themselves as victims is not simply one which happened by chance. Instead, men have been able to take on board the power that is currently vested in the ‘victim’: portraying themselves as oppressed (Bekerman and Zembylas 2011).   Backlash, under these terms, becomes a complex struggle for control over scarce resources and power over the symbolic languages in which notions of masculinity and femininity are normalised.   Men use backlash as a means of making themselves visible as men   and as victims, to accrue the benefits which come with being seen as the disadvantaged partner (Robinson 2000).   Consequently, by claiming the status of victims, men are able to maintain their position as those in power and control, with the added respect and material gains that goes along with this. Privileges are masked by the guise of victimhood which men have decided to wear.  Ã‚   It should be noted, however, this iss ue is made more complex by debates about the notion of power. Some suggest that power relationships are a myth, while there is an illusion that power is vested in the hands of a minority, in fact all groups in society are oppressed: â€Å"power is actually a form of a myth which subjugates all people† (Bad Subjects 1998, p. 55). 3. Backlash and the Contemporary Positions of Men and Women in Organisations The above suggests that backlash is a complex concept which underpins recent developments in contemporary awareness of feminism and women’s rights. But what repercussions does this have for understanding the positions of both men and women within organisations? There are signs that backlash is thriving in business and business organisations. Writing of the USA in the early years of the 21st Century, Bilimora and Piderit suggest that women were increasingly ‘opting out’ of the business world, for example moving on to start their own businesses, partly as a result of a backlash against the notion that women can ‘have it all’ and successfully juggle home and work (Bilimora and Piderit 2007).   This move to self-employment and starting one’s own business as a way of stepping outside the hostility of the male-dominated business environment has been reported elsewhere, for example The United States Small Business Association reported a 58% growth i n women running businesses (SBA 1993), while Carey and Bryant (1995) suggested that women-run businesses were expanding into previously male-dominated areas (Carey and Bryant 1995).   It has also been reported that women can experience hostility as result of special initiatives designed to promote equality, can become over insular as they bond together in women-only networks, thus ruling out the possibility of a further assault on male power structures, and open to charges of elitism (McCarthy 2004). However, some organisations have found that promoting equality measures in the right way can avoid backlash. Wittenberg-Cox and Maitland (2009) describe the case study of Nestle, who sought to prioritise gender equality within the workplace. They rejected the diversity approach popular in the USA in favour of promoting gender balance. Their approach was to involve men, and particularly male leaders, from the outset, with gender awareness workshops for leaders and executives. They found that this approach saw men committed to and leading organisational change, and the company thus â€Å"avoided the backlash that is common in companies that launch â€Å"women’s† initiatives† (Wittenberg-Cox and Maitland 2009). 4. Conclusion To summarise, men have historically occupied an invisible, gendered space within the work environment. Their privileges compared to women, and their power compared with women, have gone unnoticed through this invisibility.  Ã‚   Through feminism, there has gradually arisen an awareness of these hidden inequalities, and the ways in which men have been prioritised as the ‘neutral’, over-riding voice in the workplace. This awareness has led to some redistribution of power, as women take on greater responsibility, more powerful roles, and obtain better pay. However, the consequences of this have been that men have, in some instances, started to see themselves as victims of women’s growth in the workplace through the phenomenon of backlash. Although seemingly a simple concept, backlash is complex and tricky to measure, and has a number of consequences for both men and women.   Ã‚  The notion of normativity helps us understand the ways in which victimhood has been a ppropriated by some men to reclaim the power they feel they have lost.  Ã‚   Ideas around backlash and normativity have had a number of repercussions for the workplace and organisational politics, some detrimental to women’s position, although there are suggestions that the right approach to equality can overcome these issues.    References AMOI (1988) ‘American Male Opinion Index’, Conde Nast, New York Angus, L B (1993) Education, inequality, and social identity, Routledge, USA/ UK Astrachan, A (1986) How Men Feel: Their responses to Women’s Demands for Equality and Power,   Anchor, New York. Bad Subjects Production Team (1998) Bad subjects: political education for everyday life, NYU Press, USA. 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